The ‘Hittite plague’, an epidemic of tularemia and the first record of biological warfare

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Summary

A long-lasting epidemic that plagued the Eastern Mediterranean in the 14th century BC was traced back to a focus in Canaan along the Arwad-Euphrates trading route. The symptoms, mode of infection, and geographical area, identified the agent as Francisella tularensis, which is also credited for outbreaks in Canaan around 1715 BC and 1075 BC. At first, the 14th century epidemic contaminated an area stretching from Cyprus to Iraq, and from Israel to Syria, sparing Egypt and Anatolia due to quarantine and political boundaries, respectively. Subsequently, wars spread the disease to central Anatolia, from where it was deliberately brought to Western Anatolia, in what constitutes the first known record of biological warfare. Finally, Aegean soldiers fighting in western Anatolia returned home to their islands, further spreading the epidemic.

Section snippets

Onset of the epidemic

A deadly epidemic, also dubbed the Hittite plague, affected most of the Middle East toward the end of the 14th century BC. The present study determined that its onset was described in the Egyptian royal archives, enabling to date it to the last reigning years of Akhenaten, i.e., just before 1335 BC, and locate the focus to an area northeast of Byblos (present-day Lebanon).

Letter EA 96 states that “there is a pestilence in Simyra” [1]. Anyone from Simyra was barred from entering nearby Byblos

Wars spread the epidemic

Neshites, also known as Hittites, were the political rivals of the Egyptians, attacked Egyptian border positions at Amka along the river Litani just east of Byblos and Simyra (Fig. 1) in 1325 BC. The booty and prisoners of war left a contaminated trail as attested by letter RS 4.475 from Ugarit ruled by Niqmaddu II (1349–1315 BC), one of the mini-states within the Neshite empire. Neshite merchants died at Ugarit from “the hand of a god” [2]. The plague then appeared in Neshite homeland, and the

Tularemia?

The reconstruction of the dynamics of the epidemic helps identifying the etiological agent. A disease lasting 35–40 years, infecting humans and animals, causing fever, disabilities, and death, spreading via rodents aboard ships as well as donkeys, points to Francisella tularensis, the etiological agent of tularemia.

This disease can linger for a long time [8], and its longevity is incompatible with shorter-lived epidemics such as from bubonic plague, which for instance hit Europe around

Biological warfare?

The Neshite–Arzawan conflict raises the question of the pathogen being intentionally used as a weapon. In spite of the plague and changes of rulers, Neshites blocked the Arzawan attack, then routed the opponents, and did so in less than two years. Did Neshites have a secret weapon? The Neshite king wished the plague on the Arzawans [2]. Did he actively contribute to make his wish come true?

Well, during the Bronze Age blitzkrieg, Arzawans and allies were infected. Additionally, Neshites were

Acknowledgement

The author wishes to thank Dr. Plamen Padeshki, as well as Miguel Valerio for their excellent discussions from a medical and source content, respectively.

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